The frontispiece from the Paris 'Bible moralisée' (around 1225) [68] shows God as the creator of the universe. God as the builder of the world measures the cosmos, which he has well proportioned, with a compass and judges it to be good. The depiction from this book of edification in the Gothic style, richly illuminated throughout, builds a bridge from the primarily theological understanding of the material world to the measurable, the scientifically explorable, the geographically ascertainable.

The 'Atlas Miller' [66] (1519) was commissioned by the Portuguese King Manuel I (1469-1521) and shows the earth surrounded by allegories of the four winds on the world map of Lopo Homem. It combines medieval ideas of the world with those of the early modern era. The presumed but undiscovered southern continent, TERRA INCOGNITA, still forms a land bridge from South America to East Asia and closes off the Atlantic from the Pacific.

The 'Boke of idrography' [67] by Jean Rotz, which was written in France in 1542 but dedicated to the English King Henry VIII, is much more modern. This work is already based on the findings of Ferdinand Magellan's voyage in the years 1519-1522 and we see a map image with rhumb lines (lines with a constant course angle) and wind roses typical of early modern nautical maps.

The contrast between natural science and pseudo-science was alien to pre-modern times. In the 'Catalan World Atlas' [71] by the Jewish cartographer Abraham Cresques, which was created in Mallorca around 1375, we find not only nautical charts that are very advanced for the time of its creation, but also the diagram of the signs of the zodiac and phases of the moon, in which astronomical science and astrological interpretations are combined.

A good two centuries later, we still encounter this fusion of empiricism and superstition in the 'Atlas universalis' [69] by Diogo Homem (1521-1576). Although his nautical maps were among the most accurate and advanced of his time, we find them once again combined with the familiar depiction of the signs of the zodiac.

Finally, the 'Mauerquadrant' (mural instrument) developed by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) can be attributed entirely to empirical astronomy [70]. Before the invention of the telescope, mural instruments enabled the precise measurement of elevation angles and the position of celestial bodies along the meridian. Based on his observations, Tycho Brahe developed a compromise model between the geocentric system of Ptolemy and the heliocentric system of Copernicus, which became known as the Tychonic world view.

Commissioned by the Sforza court in Milan, Christoforo de Predis (1440-1486) wrote 'De sphaera' [73], one of the most magnificent works on celestial science. On the one hand, it reflects the state of science at the time and, on the other, the teachings of astrology on the effect of celestial bodies on human beings.

The 'Codex Schürstab' [75], which was produced around the same time for a patrician family in Nuremberg, deals with the influence of the stars on health. It combines astrology and the four-element doctrine, handed down from antiquity and influential well into the early modern period, which attributed all becoming, being and passing away to the so-called root forces of earth, fire, water and air.

The 'Heidelberger Schicksalsbuch' [74], written after 1491, is dedicated to the work of the stars in human destiny according to the doctrine of the signs of the zodiac. The seemingly scientific explanations and tables reflect the understanding of astrology as a serious discipline with practical application.

In addition to the Earth's constant companions in space, the stars and planets, people were also fascinated by celestial phenomena that could only be observed sporadically, such as solar and lunar eclipses, comets and other so-called celestial signs. The 'Augsburger Wunderzeichenbuch' [76] is dedicated to this topic.

The 'Portolan Atlas' [72] by Battista Agnese (around 1500-1564) is known for its advanced and precise nautical maps. However, it also contains scenes and figures from ancient mythology and interweaves cartographic science with astrology.