Dunning stone

For the rededication of the memorial stone commemorating the role of the German colonial school in Witzenhausen in our colonial past
Speech by Prof. Dr. Maria R. Finckh

In 2022, the topic of Witzenhausen's colonial past came into focus, as last year, 2023, marked the 125th anniversary of the founding of the "German Colonial School". Although its existence came to an end after the Second World War, the colonial era, as it is euphemistically known, continues to have an impact worldwide and on each individual in their own unique way.
It was a matter of dealing with this history in many individual events on topics such as:
- Which and whose memory?
- What and whose perspectives?
- Which and whose traces?
- What and whose responsibility?
- Cinema and lecture events
- and much more,
where there was much that was new for me and I am sure for many of you too. And I realized and continue to realize how much today's structures are still rooted in the past.
My life story, my thoughts and feelings were and are influenced by German history, of which colonial history is an inseparable part. This was largely concealed or ignored in my childhood and youth and often to this day and was simply not present to me. And many people will have had a similar experience in their lives, especially if they do not have a migration background, as they say today, or were or are not active in this context. How difficult it is for those affected to remember was impressively demonstrated to me in the movie "Der vermessene Mensch", which is certainly viewed critically by some. Purely by chance, I then came across an interview with trauma therapist Marcella Katiijova from Namibia, who accompanied the people and is also a victim herself, in "Psychologie heute" from January 2024. She discusses the impact of intergenerational trauma on both the victims and the perpetrators. The history of the colonial school is nothing to write home about. That is why we now have the DITSL here on site with a significantly different focus and, above all, our department, which is entirely dedicated to ecological agricultural sciences. But we have to talk about this history because colonial history is largely a hidden history that still affects our daily lives today.
Not only I, but many of you will have learned little to nothing about German colonial history in history class. I only knew about today's Namibia and Tanzania as former colonies and a little about the war in Namibia at the beginning of the 20th century. But I certainly had little or no awareness of the genocide of the Ovaherero and Nama and many others before 2004. And who knows how and why Germany became a colonial power or where there were colonies everywhere, that Germany became the third largest colonial empire in the 19th century within a decade? I didn't know until recently. Admittedly, my generation is and was also heavily preoccupied with the question of the history of its own parents up to 1945 and afterwards, but the racist and National Socialist ideas in particular were and are also fed by the view of the forefathers who were active in the colonies and felt like master race.
In this context, the film on the women's colonial school was depressing, in which women who had themselves worked as mistresses on the plantations had their say unfiltered. Only a few who have changed in their thinking about this history. And we can still see that today, master race thinking, racism, they are all there. "The womb is still fertile from which this crawled". Unfortunately and frighteningly so. For this reason, immediately following the dedication of the memorial stone, we will continue to commemorate the pogrom against the Jewish residents of Witzenhausen on November 8, 1938 at the site of the former synagogue here in Steinstrasse and, above all, the fact that neo-Nazi ideas are becoming increasingly virulent here and today. It is our responsibility to actively oppose these developments in all situations.
As a woman, I often think about why so many men are stuck in the old images and ask myself why women, who still do a lot of the educational work, don't achieve more here? The reasons are complex, women often bring up their children in the way they have experienced it themselves and thus carry old patterns of thought and perception, which are often unconsciously served into the next generation. Even worse, many women say with conviction that a woman's place is only at the side (often even below) the man. Women vote for openly misogynistic politicians and support the system.... But education doesn't just take place in the family, we all have a role to play here.
Our thinking and behavior in relation to colonial history and today is shaped individually and collectively by our history. And so, unfortunately, it is still normal for us in the North to almost automatically assume that we owe others something, but always in the sense that we have to provide "development aid". However, this is usually not done on an equal footing but from the position of those who have and can do so much. What our counterparts have and can do is often overlooked. Don't we all need development aid in order to really be able to meet at eye level?
And a word about guilt and responsibility. They are closely interwoven and yet not the same thing. I am guilty if I was actively involved in the injustice or allowed it to happen. But responsibility arises not only from guilt on the one hand, but also from my background and in the context of my current life.
No, most people today did not act as colonists, but the world we live in, our prosperity and the poverty of others are to a large extent a product of the colonial era. And this is where the responsibility here and now comes into play, which we have and must accept if anything is to improve. It is worth reflecting on how we think about people from other cultures and countries, how much of our behavior resembles the arrogance and the feeling of being something better that was and is characteristic of the relationship of the colonists and colonial powers towards the occupied territories.
This and our own lack of knowledge about our history and the resulting patterns of behavior and the still drastic inequality in the world are our responsibility. Also again and again and again the question of how this inequality, "being rich" or "being white", affects us personally and our behavior. How many restrictions and how much real sharing will we accept in the future? What contribution can we make to real decolonization in people's minds, which is the prerequisite for living together as equals in the future? We are to blame here if we do nothing about the climate catastrophe, which began in the industrialized countries and is now devastatingly continuing everywhere. If we do not change our behavior, we are definitely guilty.
The memorial stone, which is being dedicated today opposite the bust of Fabarius, at eye level with Fabarius as a representative of the colonialists instead of just lying on the ground, is a permanent reminder of our history and responsibility. Of course, there have always been discussions about whether it is right to display the bust of Fabarius outdoors at all. These discussions will continue and the interpretation of what is right and what is wrong will also change. That is why there are plaques next to the permanent monuments, which can and should change and develop.
We are able to dedicate this memorial stone again today because a large number of people here in Witzenhausen and from further afield have been committed to it for more than two years, in addition to organizing all the events mentioned above. I cannot mention all the names and would inevitably forget many of them.
However, we should definitely remember that we owe the original stone to Prof. Dr. Sigmar Gröneveld, a former colleague here at the site before my time. He donated the stone to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the founding of the colonial school in 1998. My personal thanks for this.
I would also like to personally thank Mr. Ibrahim Klingeberg-Behr for provoking me with his sweeping accusations and then facing up to the ensuing discussion and subsequently taking care of the activities of the last two years from the very beginning. He took on an incredible burden without knowing how great it would become. We older people shied away from his plans and the plans of Witzenhausen postkolonial because we had a bit more of an idea about them. It simply takes people who start such things and then stick with them, which is what you did and at least gave me and some people at the location a clear impetus to think and learn. I thank you for that.
I would also like to thank Dr. Hülsebusch, the director of the DITSL, who has made it financially possible to place this memorial stone on the necessary pedestal and who has always been involved in the discussions.

Greeting to the rededication of the memorial stone for the victims of colonial and National Socialist regimes of violence, Witzenhausen 08.11.2024

Dearly beloved,

Today we stand here together to witness a special moment on this campus: The memorial stone for the victims of colonial and National Socialist regimes of violence is being given a new pedestal and thus a clear voice in our lives today. This stone reminds us of the destructive ideologies that were taught and lived at this institution in the past - ideas that dehumanized people and denied their dignity.

It reminds us of times when colonial and National Socialist ideologies meant contempt, discrimination and violence - with fatal consequences for countless innocent people.

By placing the stone on a new pedestal today, we are expressing the conviction that remembrance and commemoration are not closed chapters, but an ongoing responsibility. Remembrance not only preserves the memory of the victims of persecution and hatred, but also of the destructive consequences of ideological blindness and the pursuit of power. The past holds a mirror up to us and invites us to learn from what we have seen - so that we do not repeat the mistakes and horrors of history.

This memorial stone should not only be a warning, but also a place of learning. It calls on us to look and critically examine the roots and effects of discrimination and inhumanity.

Especially in times like these, when democratic values are being put to the test worldwide, this memorial stone makes us aware of the indispensable importance of democracy. Democracy is more than just a form of government; it is a set of values based on respect, human dignity, equality and tolerance.

These values not only guarantee us freedom and co-determination, but also the responsibility to be vigilant and actively combat all forms of hatred, discrimination and injustice.

History teaches us that democracy can only survive if we live and protect it every day. It is not a sure-fire success, but requires the commitment and participation of us all. The past shows what can happen when democratic principles and human rights are disregarded - spaces are created for ideologies that degrade and destroy people. The crimes and suffering that emanated from the colonial school and later in the National Socialist context remind us never to allow indifference.

It reminds us that values such as democracy, freedom and respect are not a matter of course, but require ongoing commitment. Remembrance is a bridge between the past and the present - and an important basis for us to shape our future consciously and responsibly.

May this memorial stone be a visible sign - not only of remembrance, but also of our commitment to democracy. May it remind us that striving for freedom, tolerance and justice is a daily decision.

May this stone remind us every day that knowledge and learning are not just intellectual values, but tools for respectful, tolerant and humane coexistence.

I would like to thank everyone who has been involved in its reinstallation. With this stone, we are sending a joint signal for a future that has learned from history - a future that is based on respect, compassion, human dignity and a commitment to democracy.

Dean Ralph Beyer

Church District Werra-Meißner

Dear previous speakers, dear people,
I am Laura Wallmann and I am here today representing the Association of Friends of Jewish Life in the Werra-Meißner District. This association has been working for five years now to make the traces of Jewish life here in the region visible again and thus bring them back into people's consciousness and rescue them from oblivion.
Here in Witzenhausen, we are currently working on a permanently installed walk through the town, which is intended to make the historical depth and personal diversity of Jewish life in Witzenhausen visible. The aim is to tell the stories of Witzenhausen residents who were also Jewish - not THE story of "THE Jews" in Witzenhausen. The Shoah and with it the extermination of Jewish life here in Witzenhausen should not be the only historical facet, just as we do not want to pass on a racially ideologically based definition of what is Jewish.
But on this day, November 8th, these two aspects are in the foreground. Today, 86 years ago, the November pogroms began here in Witzenhausen, in which people from the DKS were also involved and acted out their anti-Semitic hatred.
Here in Witzenhausen, the Jewish community looked back on 500 years of history on November 8, 1938, as the first Jewish inhabitants of Witzenhausen were mentioned as early as the beginning of the 15th century. The ensemble of buildings comprising the new synagogue, school and community servants' house of the Jewish community of Witzenhausen was located exactly opposite the building we are standing in front of today. Today, the synagogue, school and community servants' house are replaced by the district hospital. No remains of these three buildings have survived, unlike the building we are standing in front of today...
מ֑֑וֹךָ מ [Vәohavto lәracho komaucho^]1 - "Love your neighbor as you love
yourself!" - is what people read when they went to the synagogue here in Witzenhausen, on Shabbat, for prayers, on holidays... It stood prominently on the Aron-haQodesh, the Torah shrine^.2 It was the place in the Witzenhausen synagogue where the Torah scrolls and other scrolls were kept when they were not needed for reading during the synagogue service. In other words, when no member of the congregation was reading from them.
On November 8, 1938, the scrolls were torn from the shrine and thrown into the Kump, the fountain here on the market square, and torn prayer books were distributed on the market square^.3 But it was not only the center of Jewish religious life in Witzenhausen that suffered violence during the November pogrom on November 8 and 9, 1938. Many Witzenhausen residents were attacked, robbed and beaten in their homes. Shortly afterwards, some were deported to Buchenwald and interned; Siegmund Katzenstein was murdered in Buchenwald. This was organized and carried out by the Witzenhausen police and town council, just as it would be in 1941 and 1942 with the two deportations.
"Love your neighbor as you love yourself!" this quote from the Torah on the Torah shrine burned on the evening of November 9, along with the synagogue, school and community servants' house and almost everything inside.
But for the people whose religious life had been lived in this place, November 8 and 9 were not only the days on which their synagogue was destroyed, but also the beginning of even more intense persecution and discrimination. This led to the systematic murder of the people who prayed, celebrated and mourned here in the synagogue, who played in the garden behind the synagogue as children...
This is another reason why this memorial stone is being dedicated again today and it was important to me, as a representative of the Association of Friends of Jewish Life in the Werra-Meißner district, to remember in my greeting today the people of Witzenhausen who were already affected by anti-Semitic discrimination here in Witzenhausen before they were finally murdered by the logic of this inhuman ideology. An inhuman ideology that was also lived and taught by students and teachers at DKS.
That is why I can only agree with the request that this memorial stone should be "a symbol for the continued necessary commitment against discrimination and for democracy as well as a tolerant and respectful coexistence"! Because it takes a personal commitment to ward off discrimination of any kind and to stand up for one another.
"Love your neighbor as you love yourself!"
Thank you very much!

1 Sefer Wajikra/Lev 19,18.
2 Paul Arnsberg: Die jüdischen Gemeinden in Hessen. Beginning, downfall, new beginning. Vol. 2. Frankfurt a.M. 1971. 409.
3 Marga Griesbach: "...I can still feel the misery...". A Jewish child in Germany from 1927 to 1945. Publication series of the Ahlem Memorial, vol. 7. Hanover 2008. 17.

This stone is a stone. Presumably basalt from the Tertiary period. It lay on the Hoher Meißner for several million years until it was brought here 36 years ago. It has been a memorial stone ever since.

Professor Sigmar Groenveld and students from the Kassel University of Applied Sciences dedicated the stone here as a memorial on November 8, 1988.

It was intended as a reminder that pupils of the Colonial School were involved in the destruction of the synagogue.
It was intended as a reminder of how widespread anti-Semitic and National Socialist thinking was among the pupils.
It was a reminder of the extent to which the DKS student body was involved in the National Socialist front organizations even before 1933.

Over the years, people have repeatedly come together on November 8 to hold vigils in critical remembrance of the colonial school. Among other things:

Even before 1933, the "German Colonial School Witzenhausen" was considered a "refuge of reaction" by parts of the liberal public.

Let us think in silence about how racism and the ideology of the master race formed the atmosphere in which the Holocaust of the Jewish people was prepared.

The inner courtyard and precisely this location, opposite the Fabarius bust, was not chosen by chance. A memorial was to be placed opposite the monument to Fabarius in order to cast it in a critical light. This way of giving history a new interpretation developed in the 1980s and was later referred to as a counter-monument.

The "former monastery courtyard", as it is known today, has long been a place where world views and interpretations of history were manifested in stone and metal. In 1925, the chapel here directly behind me was consecrated and given the name Memorial Chapel. It was intended as a memorial to all DKS students, active and former students and teachers who died as soldiers in the First World War. At the same time, it became the burial place of the Fabarius family. Ernst Albert Fabarius, the founder of the school and long-time director of the colonial school, died two years after the chapel was inaugurated and was ceremoniously laid out and buried in it. Since the 1920s, the dead have been commemorated in this chapel every year, initially for the First World War and later also for the Second World War. This tradition was continued by the Altherrenverband for many decades. Three plaques on the outside wall of the chapel commemorate the function of this building.

The bust of Fabarius in front of me was dedicated shortly after his death and was the place for the ritual commemoration of the school's founder for almost 80 years.

I would like to emphasize at this point that the commemoration of Fabarius, as well as the commemoration of those who died, was a transfiguring heroic commemoration based on undemocratic and national values and not on personal mourning.

The memorial stone was placed in the middle of this ensemble of remembrance, in the axis between the bust and the chapel, in order to disturb. The memorial stone was not the only attempt to disrupt the image of history that manifests itself in the inner courtyard. Attempts have been made time and again to take away the solemn character of the bust by painting or bricking it in or, as was recently the case, adding a plaque with comments. The chapel is now also a library and the plaque commemorating the colonial pupils who died in the Second World War has disappeared from the inner courtyard.

The special thing about the memorial stone is that it not only criticizes the existing elements of remembrance, but itself offers a different view of history. Unfortunately, knowledge of the stone was increasingly forgotten over the years. And since an object of remembrance only has the meaning that is ascribed to it, the memorial stone became a stone again.

We wanted to change that. We are the Witzenhausen and Colonialism Working Group. For two years now, we have been an association of people, groups and institutions who are committed to taking a critical look at colonial history.

We want to give the stone back its meaning. We have raised the stone on a pedestal to make it visible again. The pedestal has the same shape as the pedestal of the Fabarius bust to emphasize the juxtaposition of the memorial stone and the bust. And we have given the memorial stone a dedication so that its significance is not lost. We will also be putting up a text plaque that brings together the information about this place and the memorial stone, making it available to everyone.

Even if there seems to be a difference between the pedestal and the memorial stone - the former is worked and inscribed, the latter is rough, angular and difficult to interpret - both remain just one stone. Only when we take these stones as an impetus for thought and discussion processes do they fulfill a purpose. And no matter how many words we carve into the stone or have printed on aluminum plates, the objects lose their meaning and also their justification if we do not look at and interpret them again and again.

So this rededication gains its meaning from the people who are here today, not from the stones.

What would be taught, practiced and shaped here?

When it was founded, the primary aim was to train plantation managers. In other words, they were to be prepared for administrative work in an economic system, the plantation, which per se was associated with land theft, coercive measures and everyday violence, through lectures in agricultural and cultural studies. Especially after the genocide of the Herero and Nama in present-day Namibia, a second important training objective was added, as extensive grazing land was stolen. Unlike the plantation manager, the settler farmer focused on livestock farming. Accordingly, a separate apprenticeship was set up for livestock farming. The training content was therefore more technical, geared towards the efficient exploitation of the colonized people and nature and was therefore also racist and violent. In addition, the founding director Fabarius provided a political education in the 'cultural science subjects'. He wanted to train "cultural pioneers" who would spread Germanness throughout the world. For him, Germanness was Protestant, monarchist and nationalist. Fabarius was a military pastor and set up the colonial school based on the model of the cadet academies. As a pupil, he attended a boarding school with Prussian and Silesian noblemen. Accordingly, he was deeply anti-democratic and elitist; his cultural pioneers were to become "gentleman settlers" or "gentleman farmers". For Fabarius, democratic structures such as the Reichstag were QUOTE "the worst enemy" of the colonists. (1904) On the subject of cultural pioneers as an elite, he quoted Heinrich von Treitschke: Newly settled areas needed "an energetic upper class of landlords as military, cultural and economic leaders". The Berlin history professor Treitschke was one of the leading anti-Semites of the German Empire. Under his influence, Fabarius had already founded an offshoot of the anti-Semitic Association of German Students in 1883. Accordingly, anti-Semitic voices were present in the school magazine from the very beginning. Fabarius wrote with students about QUOTE "the pig economy of a corrupt, mendacious socialist-Jewish bureaucracy" (1924). It is therefore not surprising that students who had studied under Fabarius were active in the NSDAP very early on. Swastikas were already being used by students around 1923. Otto von Scherbening, who graduated in 1906 and worked as a planter and soldier in what is now Tanzania, later proudly reported on his participation in the so-called Hitler Putsch in Munich in 1923.

Not only anti-Semitism, but racism as a whole was part of this völkisch ideology taught at the colonial school. Fabarius wrote about the war against the Herero that he considered "a final predominance of the European-Christian race in those areas to be necessary, indeed a blessing" (1904). An essay he recommended in the Zeitschrift der Schule compared Germanic and Asian skull shapes among Germans under the title Die Bedeutung der Rassenforschung für Schule und Bildung. (1913). In 1921 he wrote in biologistic language about the further immigration of Germans to the former German colonies, and I quote: "which continually counteracts the consuming poison of foreign physical, mental and moral strength and intersperses it with new German blood cells in order to combat the all too rapidly setting in of völkisch anaemia outside". His successor as director, Wilhelm Arning, also advocated biologistic racial theories, for example in a 1929 essay on the advantages of eugenics and the example of American racial researchers.

Lived

So this was taught in the colonial school. What does that mean, that racist, colonial violence and anti-Semitism were practiced? Of course, there was little physical colonial violence in Witzenhausen; this was practiced by graduates in German and other colonies. Nevertheless, the school was involved beyond the classroom. The directors were very active in providing jobs on plantations and farms and were thus directly involved in maintaining the global networks of violence of the colonial economy. Several graduates volunteered for the war against the Herero and Nama and were supported materially and emotionally by pupils and teachers with parcels and letters.

National Socialist and anti-Semitic violence was practiced locally at an early stage. As early as 1919, there were physical attacks by a pupil on Jewish fellow citizens, and in 1927 there were street battles with social democrats. From 1929 at the latest, there was a large Stahlhelm group at the school, which carried out forbidden military exercises and also took part in street fights. The most memorable incident was an attack on a Jewish hiking club in 1931, which was planned and carried out by pupils who belonged to either the SA or the Stahlhelm. Some of these pupils were involved in reprisals against SPD or trade union members as so-called "auxiliary policemen" from 1933 onwards. There is no reliable information about the direct involvement of schoolchildren in the Pogrom Night, but it can be assumed.

Co-creating - But what does co-creating mean?

Discourses on violence were received, but also produced, in school magazines. Letters from former students were read out in class and printed in the magazine. In this way, they underpinned the existing racist ideology with reports of their experiences. These letters glorified or trivialized violence, be it in war or in everyday life in the plantation economy. They reported on the alleged necessity of violent "worker recruitment", sickening working conditions or beatings. In publications outside the magazine, Fabarius not only advocated overseas colonization, but also colonization of the East. As early as 1916, he wrote about the necessary "ethnic land cleansing" by Germans in Eastern Europe and Russia. The graduate Ricardo Walther Darré, as Reichsbauernführer, was largely responsible for helping to shape the National Socialist ideology and for spreading "blood and soil". He came from a liberal family and experienced his first nationalist socialization here in Witzenhausen.

Why should we, why and how do we want to deal with this history today, why and how do we remember and commemorate?

I would like to mention four points that seem central to me with regard to the history of the DKS and remembering today and looking to the future:

1. remembrance is first and foremost about the victims of colonial and National Socialist regimes of violence who were taught, lived and helped to shape the DKS. recognizing their suffering, at least in retrospect, giving dignity and a face to people who were disenfranchised, robbed, tortured and killed in remembrance is a central concern of the culture of remembrance.

It is also about recognizing that the descendants of the victims of racist and anti-Semitic violence often suffer from the effects of history for a long time and to this day: individual traumatization of the survivors is just as much a part of this as social, cultural and economic disadvantages of those affected - this is still reflected today in the ownership structures in the former colonies, for example.

Dealing with the history of humiliation and disenfranchisement, the torture and murder of millions of people also means getting to the bottom of the long-term causes of today's inequalities and injustices. For the victims and their descendants, history is not closed in many areas, but has great and concrete significance for the present.

2) A second aspect that is important for the commemoration here at the site of the former colonial school is the question of what role science and teaching played in the exercise of colonial and National Socialist rule.

Ideas can legitimize the use of violence, robbery and discrimination. The ideology of a group of perpetrators can guide action when it comes to selecting people who are made the target of violence (Winfried Speitkamp)[1].

Remembering that the teaching at the German Colonial School was geared towards colonial education, served to demonstrate the superiority of the "Nordic race" and was permeated by anti-Semitic resentment and anti-democratic ideas, should also remind us to critically reflect on today's science, the values and images of humanity on which it is based and the purposes for which science is made. After all, knowledge and science are always embedded in social and political contexts; research is not value-free and is used for specific purposes.

3 Anti-Semitism and racism

Both colonialism and the Shoah are crimes that affect all people in their cruelty and extent. The victims of both violent regimes are commemorated.

The history of the DKS in Witzenhausen shows how closely the ideologies and perpetrator groups of colonialism and National Socialism are historically linked; they shared a racist and undemocratic world view.

However, the history of this place also shows that colonialism and National Socialism, racism and anti-Semitism do not merge, but are each independent forms of discrimination, exploitation and domination of people, including planned murder. Remembering together and remembering at the same time does not mean equating the stories. Both need and deserve their own reappraisal and consideration.

While the racist logic regards certain people as inferior because of their origin or appearance, the anti-Semitic logic consists of demonizing certain people who are imagined to be influential, powerful and therefore dangerous.

Colonial rule and National Socialism are history, but racism and anti-Semitism are unfortunately still very present and continue to victimize people today because they are read as "black", migrant or "Jewish".

• Last night, for example, people were chased through the streets of Amsterdam, beaten up and injured because they are Jewish. (the investigation is ongoing)

This memorial stone is intended to encourage solidarity in remembrance, not to play victim groups off against each other, but to deal respectfully with the suffering inflicted on all, to recognize victims and to remind us to live "never again is now".

4. remembrance as a permanent process

By erecting this memorial stone again and again, the commemoration of the victims of colonial and National Socialist violence is institutionalized. This is important in order to give remembrance a lasting form and recognition. There is a long history of controversial remembrance debates here in the courtyard, and the many years of student activism have contributed significantly to the fact that we are now erecting this new memorial stone.

However, the aim is not to bring remembrance to an end. Remembrance is an ongoing process with which we have to deal with the past again and again in the present, with questions and conflicts that are always topical.

Past, present and future are controversial. Different stories about the past and about the relationship between past and present contain different visions for the future. Criticism, doubt and controversy are all part of a good culture of remembrance - this is the only way to keep it alive and meaningful.

Let us help to ensure that this place remains a space for critical and lively remembrance. Firmly anchored in a democratic culture and the promotion of social justice.

[1] Winfried Speitkamp, Violent Communities in History. An introduction, in: Winfried Speitkamp (ed.), Gewaltgemeinschaften in der Geschichte. Emergence, Cohesiveness and Decay, Göttingen 2017, pp. 12-39, here: S. 16-17.